During the Gunpowder Period, three powerful empires emerged in the Muslim world, namely the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires. These empires exerted their dominance globally during this era. The Ottomans, for example, achieved a significant victory in 1453 by capturing Constantinople, marking the end of the Eastern Roman Empire. They then expanded their influence over Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean region.
The Ottomans were descendants of a Turkic nomad tribe from the Eurasian Steppe, and the Mughals were descended from the Mongols. ('Mughal' is actually derived from 'Mongol'). Therefore, the influence of Steppe-dwellers on Islamic history remained significant during the Gunpowder period.
Meanwhile, in Europe, a new era of exploration and discovery unfolded. European explorers embarked on voyages of discovery across the oceans, seeking wealth and opportunities, and scholars began delving into the past in pursuit of classical Roman and Greek culture, which sparked a period known as the Renaissance. Spanish explorers discovered the Americas, uncovering vast reserves of silver, and thus began the expansion of the Spanish empire in South and Central America. Other European nations also sought dominance in trade routes to the Far East and the colonization of the Americas, giving rise to the colonial empires.
Amidst these developments, a spirit of learning and rational thought spread across Europe. The Protestant movement, led by Martin Luther, challenged Catholic teachings, considering them irrational and corrupt. Luther encouraged all Christians to read the Bible for themselves, making translations of the text available to the masses for the first time. This newfound emphasis on individual access to religious texts and the rise of rational thought laid the groundwork for a changing intellectual landscape.
The Gunpowder Period also witnessed the rise of capitalism in Western Europe. Capitalism has often faced criticism for concentrating wealth in the hands of a few mega-rich individuals, while the masses get poorer and poorer. The practice of primogeniture, in which all inheritance passes to the eldest son, further contributed to the concentration of wealth. Additionally, the Catholic prohibition on usury (charging 'interest' on debts) was reversed by Protestant leader, Calvin, paving the way for a capitalist system based on usury.
In contrast, the Muslim world implemented mechanisms to ensure wealth distribution. Islamic law achieved this through:
The caliph or sultan had the power and the responsibility to intervene in the economy if essential goods (such as grain) were not available for the common people, for example, by fixing them at an affordable price.
During the Gunpowder Period, significant transformations took place across the globe, from the rise of powerful empires and exploration to changes in religious and economic systems. These developments shaped the course of history and laid the foundation for the modern world.